Integrating an Intertextuality and Postcolonial Study of American Transcendentalist Literature

As Henry David Thoreau wrote in Walden, “Authors, more than kings, exert influence on mankind” (73). When Thoreau published these words, he was not pontificating about his own prowess as a writer; instead, he was attempting to articulate the importance and impact of all writers, books, and written language.  Certainly, Thoreau, along with other American transcendental philosophers, had experienced the magnificent power of learning via literature; in fact, the knowledge he gained through reading must have kindled some of the ideas he would eventually publish for others to imbibe.  With this assertion in mind, and using the method of TEXTUAL ANALYSIS, I propose to perform an INTERTEXTUALITY study between American transcendental literature and philosophical literature from earlier time periods and varying cultures.  Although Emerson and Thoreau, the two authors who fashioned my paramount objects of study, gave the impression that they were speaking as individuals, intertextual analysis realizes that texts are created “out of the sea of former texts” (Bazerman 83).  While Bazerman’s overview of intertextuality focuses on the explicit and implicit relations that texts possess, the varying levels of intertextuality also come into play, many of which play into the roles of transcendental writing: drawing explicit social dramas, using statements as background, support, and contrast, and relying on preconceived beliefs and ideas (87).

Since societal problems, philosophies, and beliefs have been promulgated for centuries, I feel that there are myriad connections between transcendental works and literature published prior.  I have no doubts that many of the transcendentalists’ ideas were novel; however, it is also evident that writers like Emerson and Thoreau placed old ideas into a new context, thus exhibiting various forms of recontextualization.  Previous studies have been conducted regarding the foundation of American transcendental thought, yet most of these investigations link Emerson to English Renaissance writers, Wordsworth, or other romantic writings from Europe.  Meanwhile, Thoreau’s basis in transcendental thought resides with Emerson, his mentor.  These types of studies are factual and sometimes painstaking, but they also seem to posit significantly recognizable information, for there are plenty of journals and other published accounts where Emerson and Thoreau articulate the origins of some of their fundamental philosophies.  Nevertheless, my research will venture to uncover similar concepts in texts written in numerous time periods and places, texts that may or may not have been encountered by Thoreau or Emerson.  Instead of focusing on romantic or renaissance writings, the majority of my studies will reflect writings from the English Restoration, English Reformation, Age of Reason, and the Puritans.  While some scholars have made subtle connections between American transcendentalism and English Reformation/Puritan writings, I plan to enhance these studies by looking specifically at works by Samuel Johnson and Jonathan Edwards.  Moreover, I intend to link some of the ideas posed by the transcendentalists to the notions disseminated by Thomas Paine, a more unique study that will combine reason with romance. As Rebecca Gould writes, transcendentalists felt that knowledge should be divided between the concept of understanding through rational reflections and the process of reason, which transcendentalists feel is an inherent human gift that every person should nurture (1653).  This evidence promoting the importance of reason among transcendentalists should assist in connecting Paine’s writings with those of Emerson and Thoreau.

In attempting this enterprise, I already realize that I will encroach into areas that are already hazy, probably making them cloudier on occasion.  For example, one of the major debates among scholars of American transcendentalism and textual analysis concentrates on examining American transcendentalism’s identity.  This involves where the transcendentalists received their inspiration, but more importantly, the debates focus on reasons behind the movement and a proper labeling of the movement.  My loyalties lie with critics like Fulton and Osgood, scholars who adamantly oppose the view that American transcendentalism is just a Lockean revolt (Fulton 392).  Likewise, these scholars are apt to believe that the American movement was mostly conceived as a rebirth of the European Renaissance/Restoration (390).  Of course, this is one area where I will slightly disagree, since I plan to research origins also associated with the Age of Reason and Puritanism.  As for the other side of the debate spectrum, I will not accept Matthiessen’s sweeping notion that the American transcendental movement was its own innovative entity and not a rebirth from other climes (Fulton 384).

Although I disagree with Matthiessen’s claim regarding American transcendentalism, I do agree with his identification of the NEW CRITICISM as a mode of study that combines cultural and historical attributes (Graff 217).  On the surface, this might not seem pertinent to my intertextuality study; however, without the New Criticism, transcendental studies may not have experienced its rebirth among critics.  While many New Critics sought to separate history from literature, others, like Matthiessen, helped fashion the cultural and historical methods so predominant today.  Still, American transcendentalism’s place within the New Criticism is murky and contradictory.  Since there appears to be a drastic increase in transcendental studies in the 1930s, this seems to coincide with the spawning of the New Criticism (Paine 631).  Nevertheless, it must still be noted that the New Critics showed contempt for any writings that were academic and political, yet this same movement promoted writers like Melville and Thoreau (Graff 213).  Hashing out these apparent contradictions will be integral when I conduct my study, and in order to fulfill the final phase of my scholarly study it will be vital to identify Thoreau and Emerson as valid authors relevant to New Criticism’s scope, for this will promote my perspective that recognizes American transcendentalist literature as being worthy of postcolonial analysis.

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POSTCOLONIAL theory and American transcendental writings are rarely tied to one another, but I see great potential and merit to an examination that links the two.  Booker’s definition of postcolonial theory, which is referenced in English Studies: An Introduction to the Discipline(s), is as follows: “Postcolonial theory arises in a cultural context informed by the attempt to build a new hybrid culture that transcends the past but still draws on the vestigial echoes of precolonial culture, the remnants of the colonial culture, and the continuing legacy of traditions of anticolonial resistance” (McComiskey 255). After all, as my intertextuality research will show, transcendentalist writers do indeed draw on past cultures while integrating a framework for a new culture.  Furthermore, Renu Jeneja describes postcolonial literatures as works that alter a person’s way of thinking about two different cultures (65).  Since this is the case, I see no viable argument against joining these two areas of study, for I agree with the majority of critics who articulate the fact that postcolonial studies should focus on domineered cultures and those individuals who are forced to succumb to society’s whims and colonialism’s influence.  Essentially, I see the transcendentalists as a minority, a small group of people who are trying to fight against colonialism’s impact while establishing their own unique hybrid culture.  Meanwhile, it must be noted that some connections between transcendentalist works and postcolonialism have been conducted, but these studies tend to reflect feminist theory based around the works of Margaret Fuller, the most prominent female transcendentalist who published feminist literature in The Dial, which was the Transcendentalist Club’s magazine (Miller 120).  Instead of this tactic, I will continue to examine Thoreau and Emerson through the postcolonial lens.  While performing this study, I will align myself with Marek Paryz, one of the few scholars to publish a study devoted to transcendentalism and postcolonialism.  Published in 2012, Paryz’s book analyzes postcolonial aspects found in Emerson, Thoreau, and Whitman; in fact, Paryz clearly expresses Thoreau’s postcolonial position through his notions of living in an inescapable empire (100).

Click on Paryz's book to view the table of contents and full-text Ebook version. *ODU login will be required.
Click on Paryz’s book to view the table of contents and full-text Ebook version. *ODU login will be required.

While I realize the magnitude of my entire study is immense and challenging, I also realize that it may be even more demanding to package everything together in a cohesive manner.  In order to even attempt this rigorous endeavor it will be essential to understand all of my potential objects of study, whether they are works by Emerson, Thoreau, Edwards, Paine, Johnson, or even Paryz.  Along with understanding these works, comprehending the theories prevalent during these publications’ time periods and the historical influences associated with the philosophies contained within will need to take precedence.  No doubt, this will not be easy, for there will be myriad genres covered in the study: philosophical fiction, classic fiction, memoirs, essays, autobiographies, and narrative nonfiction.  Aside from the various theories associated with each genre, accruing professional knowledge through associations will be imperative. For example, joining groups such as the Thoreau Society, the American Philosophical Association, and the Thomas Paine National Historical Association could all prove beneficial, for each of these organizations promote publications and offer valuable professional conferences that are worth attending.  Even though I am aware of the prospective challenges this study holds, perhaps my biggest concern involves potential biases that I possess.  Overall, I place great credence in the philosophies implemented by the American transcendentalists, but I need to make sure that my biases do not affect the true nature of my study.  Most importantly, while researching, I need to remind myself that it doesn’t matter if the ideas articulated by the American transcendentalists were original or not.  I don’t need to place Emerson and Thoreau upon a pedestal; instead, I need to find out where their brilliant ideas originated, for the philosophies are most significant, not the men or cultures from where they came.

Works Cited

Bazerman, Charles, and Paul Prior, eds. What Writing Does and How It Does It: An Introduction   to Analyzing Texts and Textual Practices. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,   2004. Print.

Fulton, Joe B. “Reason for Renaissance: The Rhetoric of Reformation and Rebirth in the Age of     Transcendentalism.” The New England Quarterly 80.3 (2007): 383-407. JSTOR. Web. 21 October 2016.

Gould, Rebecca Kneale. “Transcendentalism.” Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature. ed. Bron Taylor. New York: Bloomsbury Academic Publishing, 2010, Print.

Graff, Gerald.  “The Promise of American Literature Studies.”   Professing Literature: An Institutional History.  Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987, pp. 209-25.  Print.

Juneja, Renu. “Pedagogy of Difference.” College Teaching 41.2 (1993): 64-70. EBSCOhost: Education Research Complete. Web. 18 October 2016.

McComiskey, Bruce, ed. English Studies: An Introduction to the Discipline(s).  Urbana, IL: NCTE, 2006. Print.

Miller, Thomas P. The Evolution of College English: Literacy Studies from the Puritans to the             Postmoderns.  Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2011. Print.

Paine, Gregory. “Trends in American Literary Scholarship with Reviews of Some Recent Books.” Studies in Philology 29.4 (1932): 630-43. JSTOR. Web. 28 October 2016.

Paryz, Marek. The Postcolonial and Imperial Experience in American Transcendentalism. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012. Ebook Library. Web. 24 October 2016.

Thoreau, Henry David. Walden, Civil Disobedience, and Other Writings. ed. William Rossi. New York: Norton, 2008. Print.

Analyzing Emerson and Thoreau’s Writings to Answer Major Questions in Transcendental Studies

Since my research in the field of AMERICAN LITERATURE focuses distinctly on writing from the AMERICAN TRANSCENDENTALISTS, the objects of study are condensed to writings created during a span of only a few years.  While this may seem like a relatively small body of time and work, there are still immense literary annals devoted to writers from this period of time who dabbled with transcendental philosophies.  Writers such as Margaret Fuller, Bronson Alcott, Louisa May Alcott, Theodore Parker, and even Nathaniel Hawthorne and Walt Whitman, all published works of transcendental literature; however, my explicit study focuses on RALPH WALDO EMERSON and HENRY DAVID THOREAU’S contributions.  Historically, these two men produced the most essential works of transcendental literature, so their writings represent the most widely accepted objects of study in relation to American transcendental studies.  Even more specifically, my study looks at Emerson and Thoreau’s political works, and many of these works can be found in the Transcendentalist Club’s distinct publication, THE DIAL, where the transcendentalists were able to “communicate and exert their influence” from 1840-1844 (Gould 1652).

Click on the image of Thoreau and Emerson to learn more about the Association for Global New Thought.
Click on the image of Thoreau and Emerson to learn more about the Association for Global New Thought.

When scholars analyze Emerson and Thoreau’s political essays and other literary contributions, there are myriad studies performed.  Many scholars choose to analyze specific essays in order to identify contradictions, paradoxes, and incongruities among Emerson or Thoreau’s ideas.  For example, Shawn St. Jean examined Thoreau’s “Resistance to Civil Government,” “Slavery in Massachusetts,” and the John Brown essays in order to deviate from normal perceptions and show that Thoreau actually shows consistency in his beliefs, even if those beliefs are altered by political and social upheavals (354).  Meanwhile, although analyzing each writer’s potential inconsistencies is a common mode of study, there are plenty of other critics who analyze the writings of the time period in order to show how transcendental literature relates to other historic movements in the United States and the rest of the world.  Myriad critics link America’s period of transcendentalism to the European Renaissance, England’s Restoration, America’s Southern Renaissance, or the Puritan influence, yet others see America’s renaissance as its own unique entity, one that is a revolt or completely groundbreaking in its approach.  Nevertheless, after reviewing a majority of the objects of study, the more collective opinion is that the transcendentalist age was not a birth; instead, it was a renaissance that gathered inspiration from numerous previous ages while generating some of its own novel nuances (Fulton 407).

While some of these areas may be touched upon in my own research, my primary goal is to analyze Emerson and Thoreau’s works from a POSTCOLONIAL standpoint. While performing this research, looking at transcendental literature through a CULTURAL STUDIES lens is required.  Since cultural/postcolonial studies are tied to the inception of the NEW CRITICISM in America, analyzing the transcendental works to identify how they fit into the New Criticism approach is necessary.  Furthermore, in order to accomplish these tasks, the importance of the history of American literature studies also needs to be addressed to show how transcendental studies can help answer some of the major questions posed by scholars of both postcolonial and New Criticism studies.  One of the major questions related to the New Criticism focuses on what works of literature were revived after WWI.  As Gregory Paine notes, Emerson and Thoreau were two of the authors whose works rose in the “literary firmament” during the 1930s (631).  This augmentation fits well with the New Criticism’s objectives to become a cultural and historical method where continuity could be charted in literary traditions in writings from the Puritans, Transcendentalists, and Romantics (Graff 217).

While this connection between the New Criticism, the Transcendentalists, and cultural studies may seem obvious, the inclusion of transcendental studies is often debated.  Graff continues by noting that New Criticism’s emergence created a revival in unpopular writers like Melville and Thoreau, for the critics were attempting to scorn everything academic (213).  The main hurdle here is that Emerson and Thoreau’s political works were often viewed by many scholars as primarily academic, and a major question as to transcendentalism’s place as a conservative or liberal movement must be posed.  Obviously, most critics refer to the movement as liberal; however, certain elements of Emerson’s writings in particular display more conservative approaches that are unique but not radical.  As Thomas P. Miller writes, “The New Criticism was instrumental in distancing literary studies from the more politically engaged schools of criticism that were popular in the Progressive era—those of “Leftists, or Proletarians…” (162). Miller’s statement muddies the water further, for it seems nearly impossible that the New Criticism can praise Thoreau while having contempt for academic and political literature.

The connections between the New Criticism and American transcendentalism are quite hazy, but most scholars find or consider major connections between transcendentalism and postcolonial studies.  According to Kropf, “American literature, in contrast and uniquely among national literatures, defines itself according to geographical and political criteria” (21).  This is precisely what transcendentalist writings do, and postcolonial studies remain part of this realm too.  Perhaps Renu Juneja sums up postcolonial studies best when she says, “This is a literature that veritably forces on our consciousness, and at all various levels, the fact that ways of thinking are altered by this contact between two different cultures” (65). While this summation clearly articulates the value of postcolonial studies, it can simultaneously be used to define exactly what transcendental writers like Emerson and Thoreau endeavored to accomplish.

Works Cited

Fulton, Joe B. “Reason for Renaissance: The Rhetoric of Reformation and Rebirth in the Age of     Transcendentalism.” The New England Quarterly 80.3 (2007): 383-407. JSTOR. Web. 21 October 2016.

Gould, Rebecca Kneale. “Transcendentalism.” Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature. ed. Bron      Taylor. New York: Bloomsbury Academic Publishing, 2010, Print.

Graff, Gerald.  “The Promise of American Literature Studies.”   Professing Literature: An Institutional History.  Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987, pp. 209-25.  Print.

Juneja, Renu. “Pedagogy of Difference.” College Teaching 41.2 (1993): 64-70. EBSCOhost: Education Research Complete. Web. 18 October 2016.

Kropf, Carl R. “The Nationalistic Criticism of Early American Literature.” Early American Literature 18.1 (1983): 17-30. JSTOR. Web. 13 September 2016.

Miller, Thomas P. The Evolution of College English: Literacy Studies from the Puritans to the             Postmoderns.  Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2011. Print.

Paine, Gregory. “Trends in American Literary Scholarship with Reviews of Some Recent Books.” Studies in Philology 29.4 (1932): 630-43. JSTOR. Web. 28 October 2016.

St. Jean, Shawn. “Thoreau’s Radical Consistency.” Massachusetts Review 39.3 (1998): 341-57. JSTOR. Web. 24 October 2016.

Transcendental Theories Pervading the Field of Study

Although there are myriad theories associated with the study of AMERICAN TRANSCENDENTALISM, two of the most prevalent theories used to generate knowledge in the field focus on apparent contradictions found in transcendental writings and the transcendental period’s existence as it relates to the past, present, and future.  Typically, both of these studies center on the two most illustrious writers of the time, RALPH WALDO EMERSON and HENRY DAVID THOREAU.  Using the political and philosophical writings of these two men, along with records of their political oratories, these objects of study are paramount in order to emphasize and extend theoretical frameworks.   While using these objects of study to generate knowledge, various stances have been established among critics, trends have been identified, and connections to American literature’s history have become evident.

Studies of the transcendental period ebb and flow, for there have been times in history where transcendental criticism has been conspicuously absent and other moments where numerous studies have been conducted.  Joe B. Fulton notes that there have always been informed discussions about transcendentalism’s influence ever since the TRANSCENDENTAL CLUB’S first meeting in 1836 (383).  However, as Gregory Paine indicates, the magnitude of transcendental studies is not always abundant, and the area of study begins to excel after WWI (631).  Of course, this is not surprising, considering that all studies in American literature also exploded after the war.  One valuable study, conducted by F.O. Matthiessen in 1941, helped shape the theoretical framework of transcendental criticism.  When researching Thoreau’s writings, which became a source of “critical bemusement and controversy in America since interest in them revived” early in the twentieth century, Matthiessen reflected on the writings’ contradictions and causal relationship to the past (St. Jean 341).  In his work, Matthiessen mentioned, but blatantly avoided, in-depth analysis of Thoreau’s paradoxes of social thought; however, this avoidance instigated a range of responses and studies.  “Later critics have been less gun-shy, but Matthiessen’s crisp assessment of Thoreau’s incongruity has defined a central point of contention among their analysis of the work that comprises Thoreau’s political canon” (St. Jean 341).

Click on the image of Thoreau's works of literature and navigate the Thoreau Society's website.
Click on the image of Thoreau’s works of literature and navigate through the Thoreau Society’s website.

While studying Thoreau’s works, a majority of scholars have accepted and advanced a theory articulating Thoreau’s contradictions; for example, even his individual works have been labeled as a “tissue of self-contradiction” (St. Jean).  This more authoritative view seems to make sense, for as Gregory Paine concedes, ignorance abounds because there are so many fascinating paradoxes about Thoreau, not just in his writings, but the man, too (632).  Meanwhile, on the other end of the spectrum, critics like St. Jean feel like a majority of scholars prefer to call Thoreau inconsistent rather than focusing on how he maintains his overall philosophies while adjusting to certain scenarios (350).  Nevertheless, Thoreau is not the only writer of the time period whose work is analyzed to identify apparent contradictions, for Emerson can often be evaluated in the same manner, and even the whole concept of transcendentalism can be hazy at times.  For instance, one critic, Professor Gohdes, presented his analyses of transcendental principles, but he was confused by the numerous definitions of the movement; therefore, he articulated that transcendentalism was not primarily a philosophy or a reform, just a spiritual attitude and new school of thought that emphasized leaders and activities (Paine 639-40).  Gohdes, like numerous other scholars, contemplates the transcendental period’s existence as it relates to the past, present, and future.

Attempting to define transcendentalism and its philosophies is the other paramount focus of study worth noting; the theories associated with whether transcendentalism mimics the past or whether it is its own novel entity help contribute to the field of study as a whole.  Looking back at Matthiessen, he theorized that the New England philosophical movement produced its own renaissance (Fulton 384).  However, this theory is the antithesis of what a majority of critics endorse; in fact, the more authoritative approach is that transcendentalism sparked a rebirth of the European Reformation and Renaissance (Fulton 390).  Even though this stance takes precedence among critics, other scholars identify the transcendental movement as a revolt against Lockean Philosophy, a revolution against American values, or a mystical evolution (Pendery 53).

For further information regarding John Locke's philosophies and literary contributions, click his image.
For further information regarding John Locke’s philosophies and literary contributions, click his image.

Essentially, some scholars look deeper into other cultures of the past in order to theorize about American transcendentalism, some look at solely American influences, such as the Puritans, some focus specifically on the time period when the transcendentalist thinkers thrived, and others examine and compare future resurgences that took place after transcendental principles dissipated. Identifying how the New England movement impacted future renaissances has been most commonly studied in the last decade; for example, some critics value MARGARET FULLER’S contributions to the transcendental movement as essential precursors to the Feminist movement (Miller 102).  Meanwhile, David Pendery has analyzed the connections between the transcendentalism’s initial “American Renaissance” and the twentieth-century “Nashville Agrarian Southern Renaissance” (41).  As indicated, the theories and methods utilized to generate knowledge in the field of American transcendental studies may vary; however, they have generated authoritative trends, reflected on a variety of histories, and have continuously scoped Emerson and Thoreau’s works as the primary objects of study.

Works Cited

Fulton, Joe B. “Reason for Renaissance: The Rhetoric of Reformation and Rebirth in the Age of     Transcendentalism.” The New England Quarterly 80.3 (2007): 383-407. JSTOR. Web. 21 October 2016.

Miller, Thomas P. The Evolution of College English: Literacy Studies from the Puritans to the             Postmoderns.  Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2011. Print.

Paine, Gregory. “Trends in American Literary Scholarship with Reviews of Some Recent Books.” Studies in Philology 29.4 (1932): 630-43. JSTOR. Web. 28 October 2016.

Pendery, David. “A Comparative Study of Two American Cultural Renaissances.” Fu Jen            Studies: Literature & Linguistics 47 (2014): 39-60. Gale: Literature Resource Center.  Web. 28 October 2016.

St. Jean, Shawn. “Thoreau’s Radical Consistency.” Massachusetts Review 39.3 (1998): 341-57. JSTOR. Web. 24 October 2016.

PAB Entry #8: “Thoreau’s Radical Consistency”

St. Jean, Shawn. “Thoreau’s Radical Consistency.” Massachusetts Review 39.3 (1998): 341-57.  JSTOR. Web. 24 October 2016.

For more than a century, critics of the AMERICAN TRANSCENDENTALISTS have debated and scrutinized the consistency of the writers’ philosophies and arguments.  While some scholars often portray writers such as EMERSON and THOREAU as hypocritical, others venture to examine their seemingly hypocritical statements and connect these ideas with each Transcendentalist’s methodology in order to create consonance between one statement and another.  Shawn St. Jean represents the later, and his essay seeks to articulate the consistency of Thoreau’s political stances, even if these stances seem contradictory on the surface.  The methods St. Jean uses in order to advance his study include a meticulous scoping of three of Thoreau’s key political writings, a firm commitment to establishing and maintaining Thoreau’s ideals, and an emphasis on some opposing critics’ theories regarding Thoreau’s probable intentions.

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St. Jean begins his essay by pointing out how critics in the early part of the twentieth century tended to avoid the topic of potential contradiction and paradox found in Thoreau’s philosophical/polotical work; however, critics in the later part of the century have been apt to denote Thoreau’s incongruities (341).  According to St. Jean, critics often fail in their assessments of Thoreau’s inconsistencies; he feels that these perceived contradictions do not exist when the debate is redirected through the understanding of Thoreau’s own transcendental point of view (342).  Using Thoreau’s “Resistance to Civil Government,” “Slavery in Massachusetts,” and three essays about John Brown, St. Jean identifies how Thoreau never fundamentally deviates from his agenda to avoid violence while seeking to establish reform and political radicalism.  Overall, St. Jean notes, “Critics have, I believe, preferred to call Thoreau inconsistent rather than deal with the (to them, painful and embarrassing) fact that Thoreau himself never acted on his own endorsement of violence” (350).  St. Jean consistently reports that Thoreau always maintained his philosophical framework, which reflected personal principles that people may enact, not endorsements for violence.  This is the case even when Thoreau may have subtly declared that violence might be the only answer to solve America’s problems.

This collection of Thoreau's essays contains each of the political works referenced in St. Jean's essay.
This collection of Thoreau’s essays contains each of the political works referenced in St. Jean’s essay.

As far as America’s problems are concerned, the paramount concern for Thoreau involved slavery.  Like the other transcendental writers, Thoreau felt that “all avenues to protect the rights of blacks, short of civil war, should be exhausted before that final [violent] option is adopted” (353).  Emerson and Thoreau always attempted to make this priority known through their lectures and political writings.  Emerson, in particular, endeavored to speak from the “heartfelt experience of a common person,” successfully articulating his points to “every dimension of American culture” (Miller 96).  Likewise, Thoreau was able to express his thoughts and agenda toward the common man and the common good, and these political ideals, according to St. Jean, did not waver from his philosophies. For example, as St. Jean writes, “His [Thoreau’s] own ‘civil disobedience’ in not paying the poll tax and John Brown’s raids, in Thoreau’s mind, were only the extreme ends of a continuum defined by respect for individual human rights above all” (353).  Taken from this key perspective, Thoreau’s continuity and authenticity do not deserve to be questioned.

Additional Sources:

Miller, Thomas P. The Evolution of College English: Literacy Studies from the Puritans to the             Postmoderns.  Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2011. Print.

*To view the full text version of St. Jean’s essay, click the link below (ODU login will be necessary):

http://www.jstor.org.proxy.lib.odu.edu/stable/pdf/25091451.pdf